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Endnotes
Introduction
1. The size of the particle pollution under discussion here is PM2.5, also called fine particles or fine particulates. These particles are classified and monitored by size, being 2.5 microns and smaller in diameter. More explanation of these particles, their origins and health effects can be found in the chapter "Health Effects of Ozone and Particle Pollution."
2. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. The Particle Pollution Report: Current Understanding of Air Quality and Emissions through 2003. December 2004.
3. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. National Air Quality and Emissions Trends Report, 2003 Special Studies Edition. Washington, DC.: U.S. Government Printing Office; 2003. EPA Publication No. 454/R-03-005. http://www.epa.gov/airtrends/aqtrnd03/.
4. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. The Ozone Report: Measuring Progress through 2003. April 2004.
5. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Section 126 Rule: Revised Deadlines. 2002. 40 CFR 97 63:21522-30.
6. See Appendix A for a complete discussion of the methodology for assessing these levels.
National and Regional Analyses
1. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. The Ozone Report: Measuring Progress through 2003. April, 2004.
2. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Acid Rain Program: 2003 Progress Report. September 2004.
3. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. The Particle Pollution Report: Current Understanding of Air Quality and Emissions through 2003. December 2004.
Health Effects of Ozone and Particle Pollution
1. U.S. EPA. Air Quality Criteria for Particulate Matter, October 2004
2. U.S. EPA. Air Quality Criteria, 2004, p. 2-2.
3. U.S. EPA, The Particle Pollution Report: Current Understanding of Air Quality and Emissions through 2003. 2004. p. 3.
4. U.S. EPA. Air Quality Criteria, 2004.
5. U.S. EPA. Air Quality Criteria, 2004.
6. Dockery DW, Pope CA, Xu X, Spengler JD, Ware JH, Fay ME, Ferris BG, Speizer FE. An Association Between Air Pollution and Mortality in Six U.S. Cities. NEJM 1993;329:1753-9.
7. Pope CA, Thun MJ, Namboodiri MM, Dockery DW, Evans JS, Speizer FE, Heath CW. Particulate Air Pollution as a Predictor of Mortality in a Prospective Study of U.S. Adults. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1995;151:669-74.
8. Krewski D, Burnett RR, Goldberg MS, Hoover K, Siemiatycki J, Jerrett M, Abrahamowicz M, White WH, Others. Reanalysis of the Harvard Six Cities Study and the American Cancer Society Study of Particulate Air Pollution and Mortality. Health Effects Institute 2000 July.
9. Nenmar A, Hoet, PHM, Vanquickenborne B, Dinsdale D, Thomeer M, Hoylaerts MF, Vanbillioen H, Mortelmans L, Nemery B. Passage of Inhaled Particles in to the Blood Circulation in Humans. Circulation 2002; 105:411-414.
10. Churg A Brauer M, Avila-Casado MdC, Fortoul TI, Wright JL. Chronic Exposure to High Levels of Particulate Air Pollution and Small Airway Remodeling. Environ Health Perspect 2003 May;111:5: 714-718.
11. Zanobetti A, Schwartz J, Samoli E, Gryparis A, Tuoloumi G, Peacock J, Anderson RH, Le Tertre A, Bobros J, Celko M, Goren A, Forsberg B, Michelozzi P, Rabczenko D, Perez Hoyos S, Wichmann HE, Katsouyanni K. The Temporal Pattern of Respiratory and Heart Disease Mortality in Response to Air Pollution. Environl Health Perspect 2003;111:1188-1193. Dominici F, McDermott A, Zeger SL, Samet JM. Airborne Particulate Matter and Mortality: timescale effects in four US cities. Am. J. Epidemiol 2003; 157:1055-1065.
12. Dominici F, McDermott A, Zeger SL, Samet JM. On the Use of Generalized Additive Models in Time-Series Studies of Air Pollution and Health. Am. J. Epidemiol 2002; 156:193-203.
13. Hong, Y.-C., Lee J.-T., Kim, H., Ha, E.-H., Schwartz, J., and Christiani, D.C. Effects of Air Pollutants on Acute Stroke Mortality. Environ. Health Perspect. Vol. 110, pp. 187-191, 2002.
14. Tsai SS, Goggins WB, Chiu HF, Yang CY. Evidence for an Association Between Air Pollution and Daily Stroke Admissions in Kaohsiung, Taiwan. Stroke. 2003; 34: 2612-6. Epub 2003 Oct 09.
15. D’Ippoliti D, Forastiere F, Ancona C, Agabity N, Fusco D, Michelozzi P, Perucci CA. Air Pollution and Myocardial Infarction in Rome: a case-crossover analysis. Epidemiology 2003;14:528-535.
16. Ghio AJ, Kim C, Devlin RB. Concentrated Ambient Air Particles Induce Mild Pulmonary Inflammation in Healthy Human Volunteers. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2000; 162(3 Pt 1):981-8.
17. Metzger KB, Tolbert PE, Klein M, Peel JL, Flanders WD, Todd K, Mulholland JA, Ryan PB, Frumkin H. Ambient Air Pollution and Cardiovascular Emergency Department Visits in Atlanta, Georgia, 1993-2000. Epidemiology 2004;15: 46-56.
18. Tsai SS, Goggins WB, Chiu HF, Yang CY. Evidence for an Association Between Air Pollution and Daily Stroke Admissions in Kaohsiung, Taiwan. Stroke. 2003; 34:2612-6. Epub 2003 Oct 09.
19. Van Den Eeden SK, Quesenberry CP Jr, Shan J, Lurmann F. Particulate Air Pollution and Morbidity in the California Central Valley: a high particulate pollution region. Final Report to the California Air Resources Board, Contract 97-303, July 12, 2002.
20. Lin M, Chen Y, Burnett RT, Villeneuve PJ, Kerwski D. The Influence of Ambient Coarse Particulate Matter on Asthma Hospitalization in Children: case-crossover and time-series analyses. Environ. Health Perspet 2002;110:575-581.
21. Norris G, YoungPong SN, Koenig JQ, Larson TV, Sheppard L, Stout JW. An Association Between Fine Particles and Asthma Emergency Department Visits for Children in Seattle. Environ Health Perspect 1999;107:489-493
22. Tolbert PE, Mulholland JA, MacIntosh DD, Xu F, Daniels D, Devine OJ, Carlin BP, Klein M, Dorley J, Butler AJ, Nordenberg DF, Frumkin H, Ryan PB, White MC. Air Quality and Pediatric Emergency Room Visits for Asthma in Atlanta, Georgia. Am J Epidemiol 2000; 151:798-810.
23. Slaughter JC, Lumley T, Sheppard L, Koenig JQ, Shapiro, GG. Effects of Ambient Air Pollution on Symptom Severity and Medication Use in Children with Asthma. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 2003; 91:346-53.
24. Pope CA III. Epidemiology of Fine Particulate Air Pollution and Human Health: biological mechanisms and who’s at risk? Environ Health Perspect 2000;108: 713-723.
25. Lin S, Munsie JP, Hwang SA, Fitzerald E, Cayo MR. Childhood Asthma Hospitalization and Residential Exposure to State Route Traffic. Environ Res 2002; 88:73-81.
26. Gauderman WJ, Gilliland GF, Vora H, Avol E, Stram D, McConnell R, Thomas D, Lurmann F, Margolis HG, Rappaport EB, Berhane K, Peters JM. Association between Air Pollution and Lung Function Growth in Southern California Children: results from a second cohort. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2002;166:76-84.
27. Gauderman WJ, Avol E, Gilliland F, Vora H, Thomas D, Berhane K, McConnell R, Kuenzli N, Lurmann F, Rappaport E, Margolis H, Bates D, Peters J. The effect of air pollution on lung development from 10 to 18 years of age. NEJM 2004;351:1057-67
28. Churg, A Brauer, M, Avila-Casado, MdC, Fortoul TI, Wright JL. Chronic Exposure to High Levels of Particulate Air Pollution and Small Airway Remodeling. Environ Health Perspect 2003; 111: 714-718.
29. Pope CA, Burnett RT, Thun MJ, Calle EE, Krewski D, Ito K, Thurston GD. Lung Cancer, Cardiopulmonary Mortality, and Long-Term Exposure to Fine Particulate Air Pollution, JAMA 2002;287:9.
30. Pope CA III, Burnett RT, Thurston GD, Thun MJ, Calle EE, Krewski D, Godleski JJ. Cardiovascular Mortality and Year-round Exposure to Particulate Air Pollution: epidemiological evidence of general pathophysiological pathways of disease. Circulation. 2004; 109:71-77.
31. Zanobetti, A., and Schwartz, J. Are Diabetics More Susceptible to the Health Effects of Airborne Particles? Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. Vol. 164. pp. 831-833, 2001.;Zanobetti, A., Schwartz, J. Cardiovascular Damage by Airborne Particles: Are Diabetics More Susceptible? National Research Council, National Academies of Science,. Research Priorities for Airborne Particulate Matter: IV. Continuing Research Progress. 2004.
32. Bell ML, McDermott A, Zeger SL, Samet JM, Dominici F. Ozone and short-term mortality in 95 US urban communities, 1987-2000. JAMA 2004; 292:2372-2378.
33. Gryparis A, Frosberg B, Katsouyanni, K et al. Acute Effects of Ozone on Mortality from the "Air Pollution and Health: A European Approach" Project. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2004;. 170: 1080-1087.
34. Gent JF, Triche EW, Holford TR, Belanger K, Bracken MB, Beckett WS, Leaderer BP. Association of Low-Level Ozone and Fine Particles with Respiratory Symptoms in Children with Asthma. JAMA 2003;290:1859-1867. Desqueyroux H, Pujet JC, Prosper M, Squinazi F, Momas I. Short-Term Effects of Low-Level Air Pollution on Respiratory Health of Adults Suffering from Moderate to Severe Asthma. Environl Res 2002;89:29-37 and Burnett RT, Brook JR, Yung WT, Dales RE, Krewski D. Association between Ozone and Hospitalization for Respiratory Diseases in 16 Canadian Cities. Environl Res 1997;72:24-31.
35. Desqueyroux H, Pujet JC, Prosper M, Le Moullec Y, Momas I. Effects of Air Pollution on Adults with Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease. Arch Environ Health. 2002;57:554-560. Höppe P. Peters A, Rabe G, Praml G, Lindner J, Jakobi G, Fruhmann G, Nowak D. Environmental Ozone Effects in Different Population Subgroups. Int J Hyg Environ Health. 2003; 206:505-516.
36. Dietert RR, Etzel RA, Chen D, et al. Workshop to identify critical windows of exposure for children’s health: immune and respiratory systems workgroup summary. Environ Health Perspect. 2000; 108 (supp 3); 483-490.
37. Binková B, Bobak M., Chatterjee A, Chauhan AJ, Dejmek J, Dockery DW, Everard M, Forastiere F, Gilliland F, Holgate S, Johnston S, Krzyzanowski M, Kuna-Dibbert B, Maynard R, Raaschou-Nielsen O, Samet J, Schneider J, Skerrett PJ, Srám RJ, Walters D, Weiland SK, Winneke G. WHO Monograph: The effects of air pollution on children’s health and development: a review of the evidence. WHO Regional Office for Europe 2004. Available at: http://www.euro.who.int/document/EEHC/execsum.pdf.
38. WHO Monograph, 2004.
39. American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Environmental Health, Ambient Air Pollution: Health Hazards to Children. Pediatrics 2004; 114: 1699-1707.
40. WHO Monograph, 2004.
41. American Academy of Pediatrics, 2004.
42. American Academy of Pediatrics, 2004.
43. Gent JF, Triche EW, Holford TR, Belanger K, Bracken MB, Beckett WS, Leaderer BP. Association of Low-Level Ozone and Fine Particles with Respiratory Symptoms in Children with Asthma. JAMA 2003; 290:1859-1867.
44. Thurston GD, Bates DV. Air Pollution as an Underappreciated Cause of Asthma Symptoms. JAMA 2003; 290:1915-1917.
45. McConnell R, Berhane K Gilliland F, London SJ, Islam T, Gauderman WJ, Avol E, Margolis HG, Peters JM. Asthma in Exercising Children Exposed to Ozone. Lancet 2002; 359:386-91.
46. Gauderman, NEJM 2004.
47. Chen L, Jennison BL, Yang W, Omaye ST. Elementary School Absenteeism and Air Pollution. Inhal Toxicol 2000; 12:997-1016. Gilliland FD, Berhane K, Rappaport EB, Thomas DC, Avol E, Gauderman WJ, London SJ, Margolis HG, McConnell R,Islam KT, Peters JM. The Effects of Ambient Air Pollution on School Absenteeism Due to Respiratory Illness. Epidemiology 2001;12:43-54.
48. Galizia A, Kinney PL. Year-round Residence in Areas of High Ozone: association with respiratory health in a nationwide sample of nonsmoking young adults. Environ Health Perspect 1999;107:675-679.
49. Peters JM, Avol E, Gauderman WJ, Linn WS, Navidi W, London SJ, Margolis H, Rappaport E, Vora H, Gong H, Thomas DC. A Study of Twelve Southern California Communities with Differing Levels and Types of Air Pollution. II. Effects on Pulmonary Function. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1999; 159:768-775.
50. Friedman MS, Powell KE, Hutwagner L, Graham LM, Teague WG. Impact of Changes in Transportation and Commuting Behaviors During the 1996 Summer Olympic Games in Atlanta on Air Quality and Childhood Asthma. JAMA 2001; 285:897-905.
Protecting the Nation from Air Pollution
1. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Region II. “Clean Air.” Available at http://www.epa.gov/region2/epa30/air.htm. Also, Petulla J, American Environmental History. 1988.
2. U.S.EPA. Air Emissions Trends – Continued Progress through 2003. Web published only, at
http://www.epa.gov/airtrends/econ-emissions.html. The Ozone Report: Measuring Progress through 2003. 2004. The Particle Pollution Report: Current Understanding of Air Quality and Emissions through 2003. 2004.
3. Section 812 of the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990.
4. U.S. EPA. The Benefits and Costs of the Clean Air Act 1970 to 1990. 1999. The Benefits and Costs of the Clean Air Act 1990 to 2010. 1999.
5. Office of Management and Budget. Progress in Regulatory Reform: 2004 Report to Congress on the Costs and Benefits of Federal Regulations and Unfunded Mandates on State, Local, and Tribal Entities. 2004; Informing Regulatory Decisions: 2003 Report to Congress on the Costs and Benefits of Federal Regulations and Unfunded Mandates on State, Local, and Tribal Entities. 2003.
6. National Research Council, National Academies. Air Quality Management in the United States. 2004.
7. Abt Associates. Power Plant Emissions: Particulate Matter-related Health Damages and the Benefits of Alternative Reduction Scenarios. Prepared for the Clean Air Task Force. 2004.
8. U. S. EPA. Clean Air Interstate Rule. Basic information. http://www.epa.gov/cair/basic.html. Downloaded March 11, 2005.
9. U.S. EPA. Clean Air Interstate Rule. Home page. http://www.epa.gov/cair/. Downloaded March 11, 2005.
10. U. S. EPA. “Discussion of Multi-Pollutant Strategy,” Meeting with the Edison Electric Institute, September 18, 2001, “Comparison of Requirements Under Business-as-usual and the Straw Proposal,” page 10. http://www.cleartheair.org/currentstatus.pdf. EPA. December 4, 2001, Supplemental presentation to Edison Electric Institute on mercury. http://www.cleartheair/epamercury.pdf.
11. 40 CFR 9, 69, 80, 86, 89, 94, 1039, 1048, 1051, 1065 and 1068.
12. American Lung Association and Environmental Defense. Closing the Diesel Divide: Protecting Public Health from Diesel Air Pollution. 2003.
Dirty, Dangerous Diesel
1. U.S. EPA. Regulatory Announcement: Heavy Duty Engine and Vehicle Standards and Highway Diesel Fuel Sulfur Control Requirements. Federal Register 2001: 66:502.
2. U.S. EPA Regulatory Announcement.
3. 40 CFR 9, 69, 80, 86, 89, 94, 1039, 1048, 1051, 1065,and 1068
4. U.S. EPA. Regulatory Announcement: Clean Diesel Program for Locomotives and Marine Engines. May 2004.
5. Clean Air Task Force. Diesel and Health in America: The Lingering Threat. 2005. Citation is based on analysis from the U.S. Department of Energy. |
